chore(robots): drive mode calibration gripper

The SO follower/leader calibration hardcoded drive_mode=0 for all motors.
When the gripper motor is mounted mirrored relative to the other arm's
(raw position increases when closing instead of decreasing), the
0=closed/100=open normalization convention flips: a 'closed' (0%)
command from the leader unnormalizes to the follower's fully-open hard
stop, slamming the gripper open and triggering the Feetech overload
protection (torque off until power cycle).

FeetechMotorsBus already supports per-motor inversion via drive_mode
(apply_drive_mode=True); calibration just never set it. This adds a
step after range recording that asks the user to fully close the
gripper, reads the raw position, and sets drive_mode=1 when the closed
position sits at range_max. No calibration file format change.

Verified against the exact calibration values reported in #3942 using
the real FeetechMotorsBus normalization: with drive_mode=0 a 0% goal
maps to raw 2035 (open, bug reproduced); with drive_mode=1 it maps to
raw 3528 (closed, expected).

Fixes #3942

docker/Dockerfile.internal

@@ -68,17 +68,16 @@ ENV HOME=/home/user_lerobot \
 # issues with MuJoCo and OpenGL drivers.
 RUN uv venv --python python${PYTHON_VERSION}
 
-# Install Python dependencies for caching
+# Install third-party dependencies separately for layer caching
 COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot setup.py pyproject.toml uv.lock README.md MANIFEST.in ./
-COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot src/ src/
-
-RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-cache
+RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-install-project --no-cache
 
 RUN chmod +x /lerobot/.venv/lib/python${PYTHON_VERSION}/site-packages/triton/backends/nvidia/bin/ptxas
 
-# Copy the rest of the application source code
+# Copy the application source code and install the local project
 # Make sure to have the git-LFS files for testing
 COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot . .
+RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-cache
 
 # Set the default command
 CMD ["/bin/bash"]

docker/Dockerfile.user

@@ -60,15 +60,14 @@ ENV HOME=/home/user_lerobot \
 # run other Python projects in the same container without dependency conflicts.
 RUN uv venv
 
-# Install Python dependencies for caching
+# Install third-party dependencies separately for layer caching
 COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot setup.py pyproject.toml uv.lock README.md MANIFEST.in ./
-COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot src/ src/
+RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-install-project --no-cache
 
-RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-cache
-
-# Copy the rest of the application code
+# Copy the application code and install the local project
 # Make sure to have the git-LFS files for testing
 COPY --chown=user_lerobot:user_lerobot . .
+RUN uv sync --locked --extra all --no-cache
 
 # Set the default command
 CMD ["/bin/bash"]

docs/source/backwardcomp.mdx

@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ final_action = postprocessor(action)
 
 ## Hardware API redesign
 
-PR [#777](https://github.com/huggingface/lerobot/pull/777) improves the LeRobot calibration but is **not backward-compatible**. Below is a overview of what changed and how you can continue to work with datasets created before this pull request.
+PR [#777](https://github.com/huggingface/lerobot/pull/777) improves the LeRobot calibration but is **not backward-compatible**. Below is an overview of what changed and how you can continue to work with datasets created before this pull request.
 
 ### What changed?
 
@@ -129,8 +129,8 @@ python examples/backward_compatibility/replay.py \
 
 Policies output actions in the same format as the datasets (`torch.Tensors`). Therefore, the same transformations should be applied.
 
-To find these transformations, we recommend to first try and and replay an episode of the dataset your policy was trained on using the section above.
-Then, add these same transformations on your inference script (shown here in the `record.py` script):
+To find these transformations, we recommend first replaying an episode of the dataset your policy was trained on using the section above.
+Then, add these same transformations to your inference script (shown here in the `record.py` script):
 
 ```diff
 action_values = predict_action(

docs/source/feetech.mdx

@@ -40,10 +40,10 @@ This tutorial guides you through updating the firmware of Feetech motors using t
 For each motor you want to update:
 
 1. **Select the motor** from the list by clicking on it
-2. **Click on Upgrade tab**:
-3. **Click on Online button**:
-   - If an potential firmware update is found, it will be displayed in the box
-4. **Click on Upgrade button**:
+2. **Click the Upgrade tab**:
+3. **Click the Online button**:
+   - If a potential firmware update is found, it will be displayed in the box
+4. **Click the Upgrade button**:
    - The update progress will be displayed
 
 ## Step 6: Verify Update

docs/source/processors_robots_teleop.mdx

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ With processors, you choose the learning features you want to use for your polic
 ## Three pipelines
 
 We often compose three pipelines. Depending on your setup, some can be empty if action and observation spaces already match.
-Each of these pipelines handle different conversions between different action and observation spaces. Below is a quick explanation of each pipeline.
+Each of these pipelines handles different conversions between different action and observation spaces. Below is a quick explanation of each pipeline.
 
 1. Pipeline 1: Teleop action space → dataset action space (phone pose → EE targets)
 2. Pipeline 2: Dataset action space → robot command space (EE targets → joints)
@@ -74,15 +74,15 @@ In the phone to SO-100 follower examples we use the following adapters:
 - `robot_action_to_transition`: transforms the teleop action dict to a pipeline transition.
 - `transition_to_robot_action`: transforms the pipeline transition to a robot action dict.
 - `observation_to_transition`: transforms the robot observation dict to a pipeline transition.
-- `transition_to_observation`: transforms the pipeline transition to a observation dict.
+- `transition_to_observation`: transforms the pipeline transition to an observation dict.
 
-Checkout [src/lerobot/processor/converters.py](https://github.com/huggingface/lerobot/blob/main/src/lerobot/processor/converters.py) for more details.
+Check out [src/lerobot/processor/converters.py](https://github.com/huggingface/lerobot/blob/main/src/lerobot/processor/converters.py) for more details.
 
 ## Dataset feature contracts
 
 Dataset features are determined by the keys saved in the dataset. Each step can declare what features it modifies in a contract called `transform_features(...)`. Once you build a processor, the processor can then aggregate all of these features with `aggregate_pipeline_dataset_features()` and merge multiple feature dicts with `combine_feature_dicts(...)`.
 
-Below is and example of how we declare features with the `transform_features` method in the phone to SO-100 follower examples:
+Below is an example of how we declare features with the `transform_features` method in the phone to SO-100 follower examples:
 
 ```python
     def transform_features(

docs/source/rtc.mdx

@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ policy_cfg.rtc_config = RTCConfig(
 policy = PI0Policy.from_pretrained("lerobot/pi0_base", policy_cfg=policy_cfg, device="cuda")
 
 # Now use predict_action_chunk with RTC parameters
-inference_delay = 4  # How many steps of inference latency, this values should be calculated based on the inference latency of the policy
+inference_delay = 4  # How many steps of inference latency, this value should be calculated based on the inference latency of the policy
 
 # Initialize the action queue
 action_queue = ActionQueue(policy_cfg.rtc_config)
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ Typical values: 8-12 steps
 RTCConfig(execution_horizon=10)
 ```
 
-**`max_guidance_weight`**: How strongly to enforce consistency with the previous chunk. This is a hyperparameter that can be tuned to balance the smoothness of the transitions and the reactivity of the policy. For 10 steps flow matching (SmolVLA, Pi0, Pi0.5), a value of 10.0 is a optimal value.
+**`max_guidance_weight`**: How strongly to enforce consistency with the previous chunk. This is a hyperparameter that can be tuned to balance the smoothness of the transitions and the reactivity of the policy. For 10 steps flow matching (SmolVLA, Pi0, Pi0.5), a value of 10.0 is an optimal value.
 
 **`prefix_attention_schedule`**: How to weight consistency across the overlap region.
 

docs/source/using_dataset_tools.mdx

@@ -50,11 +50,11 @@ lerobot-edit-dataset \
 Divide a dataset into multiple subsets.
 
 ```bash
-# Split by fractions (e.g. 80% train, 20% test, 20% val)
+# Split by fractions (e.g. 60% train, 20% val, 20% test)
 lerobot-edit-dataset \
     --repo_id lerobot/pusht \
     --operation.type split \
-    --operation.splits '{"train": 0.8, "test": 0.2, "val": 0.2}'
+    --operation.splits '{"train": 0.6, "val": 0.2, "test": 0.2}'
 
 # Split by specific episode indices
 lerobot-edit-dataset \

src/lerobot/datasets/aggregate.py

@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ import copy
 import logging
 import shutil
 from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Any, NotRequired, TypedDict
 
 import datasets
 import pandas as pd
@@ -49,8 +50,32 @@ from .utils import (
 )
 from .video_utils import concatenate_video_files, get_video_duration_in_s
 
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
-def merge_video_feature_info_for_aggregate(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]) -> dict[str, dict]:
+type FeatureDict = dict[str, dict[str, Any]]
+type ChunkFile = tuple[int, int]
+
+
+class IndexState(TypedDict):
+    chunk: int
+    file: int
+    src_to_dst: NotRequired[dict[ChunkFile, ChunkFile]]
+
+
+class VideoIndex(TypedDict):
+    chunk: int
+    file: int
+    latest_duration: float
+    episode_duration: float
+    src_to_offset: NotRequired[dict[ChunkFile, float]]
+    src_to_dst: NotRequired[dict[ChunkFile, ChunkFile]]
+    dst_file_durations: NotRequired[dict[ChunkFile, float]]
+
+
+type VideoIndexState = dict[str, VideoIndex]
+
+
+def merge_video_feature_info_for_aggregate(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]) -> FeatureDict:
     """Create a merged video feature info dictionary for aggregation. The video encoder info is merged field-by-field: each key is kept only when every source agrees; otherwise that key is set to ``null`` (or ``{}`` for ``video.extra_options``) and a warning is logged.
 
     Args:
@@ -59,14 +84,14 @@ def merge_video_feature_info_for_aggregate(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMeta
     Returns:
         dict: A dictionary of merged video feature info.
     """
-    merged_info = copy.deepcopy(all_metadata[0].features)
+    merged_info: FeatureDict = copy.deepcopy(all_metadata[0].features)
     video_keys = [k for k in merged_info if merged_info[k].get("dtype") == "video"]
 
     for vk in video_keys:
         video_infos = [m.features.get(vk, {}).get("info") or {} for m in all_metadata]
         base_video_info = video_infos[0]
 
-        merged_encoder_info: dict = {}
+        merged_encoder_info: dict[str, Any] = {}
         fallback_keys: list[str] = []
         for info_key in VIDEO_ENCODER_INFO_KEYS:
             values = [info.get(info_key, None) for info in video_infos]
@@ -80,7 +105,7 @@ def merge_video_feature_info_for_aggregate(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMeta
                 merged_encoder_info[info_key] = {} if info_key == "video.extra_options" else None
 
         if fallback_keys:
-            logging.warning(
+            logger.warning(
                 f"Merging heterogeneous or incomplete video encoder metadata for feature {vk}. "
                 f"Setting these keys to null: {fallback_keys}.",
             )
@@ -92,7 +117,7 @@ def merge_video_feature_info_for_aggregate(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMeta
     return merged_info
 
 
-def validate_all_metadata(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]):
+def validate_all_metadata(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]) -> tuple[int, str | None, FeatureDict]:
     """Validates that all dataset metadata have consistent properties.
 
     Ensures all datasets have the same fps, robot_type, and features to guarantee
@@ -129,7 +154,9 @@ def validate_all_metadata(all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]):
     return fps, robot_type, features
 
 
-def update_data_df(df, src_meta, dst_meta):
+def update_data_df(
+    df: pd.DataFrame, src_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata, dst_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
     """Updates a data DataFrame with new indices and task mappings for aggregation.
 
     Adjusts episode indices, frame indices, and task indices to account for
@@ -154,12 +181,12 @@ def update_data_df(df, src_meta, dst_meta):
 
 
 def update_meta_data(
-    df,
-    dst_meta,
-    meta_idx,
-    data_idx,
-    videos_idx,
-):
+    df: pd.DataFrame,
+    dst_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    meta_idx: IndexState,
+    data_idx: IndexState,
+    videos_idx: VideoIndexState,
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
     """Updates metadata DataFrame with new chunk, file, and timestamp indices.
 
     Adjusts all indices and timestamps to account for previously aggregated
@@ -289,7 +316,7 @@ def aggregate_datasets(
     chunk_size: int | None = None,
     concatenate_videos: bool = True,
     concatenate_data: bool = True,
-):
+) -> None:
     """Aggregates multiple LeRobot datasets into a single unified dataset.
 
     This is the main function that orchestrates the aggregation process by:
@@ -309,7 +336,7 @@ def aggregate_datasets(
         concatenate_videos: When False, keep one mp4 per source file instead of packing into shards.
         concatenate_data: When False, keep one parquet per source file instead of packing into shards.
     """
-    logging.info("Start aggregate_datasets")
+    logger.info("Start aggregate_datasets")
 
     if data_files_size_in_mb is None:
         data_files_size_in_mb = DEFAULT_DATA_FILE_SIZE_IN_MB
@@ -341,15 +368,15 @@ def aggregate_datasets(
         video_files_size_in_mb=video_files_size_in_mb,
     )
 
-    logging.info("Find all tasks")
+    logger.info("Find all tasks")
     unique_tasks = pd.concat([m.tasks for m in all_metadata]).index.unique()
     dst_meta.tasks = pd.DataFrame(
         {"task_index": range(len(unique_tasks))}, index=pd.Index(unique_tasks, name="task")
     )
 
-    meta_idx = {"chunk": 0, "file": 0}
-    data_idx = {"chunk": 0, "file": 0}
-    videos_idx = {
+    meta_idx: IndexState = {"chunk": 0, "file": 0}
+    data_idx: IndexState = {"chunk": 0, "file": 0}
+    videos_idx: VideoIndexState = {
         key: {"chunk": 0, "file": 0, "latest_duration": 0, "episode_duration": 0} for key in video_keys
     }
 
@@ -373,12 +400,17 @@ def aggregate_datasets(
         dst_meta.info.total_frames += src_meta.total_frames
 
     finalize_aggregation(dst_meta, all_metadata)
-    logging.info("Aggregation complete.")
+    logger.info("Aggregation complete.")
 
 
 def aggregate_videos(
-    src_meta, dst_meta, videos_idx, video_files_size_in_mb, chunk_size, concatenate_videos=True
-):
+    src_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    dst_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    videos_idx: VideoIndexState,
+    video_files_size_in_mb: float,
+    chunk_size: int,
+    concatenate_videos: bool = True,
+) -> VideoIndexState:
     """Aggregates video chunks from a source dataset into the destination dataset.
 
     Handles video file concatenation and rotation based on file size limits.
@@ -406,7 +438,8 @@ def aggregate_videos(
             videos_idx[key]["dst_file_durations"] = {}
 
     for key, video_idx in videos_idx.items():
-        unique_chunk_file_pairs = {
+        unique_chunk_file_pairs: list[ChunkFile] = sorted(
+            {
                 (chunk, file)
                 for chunk, file in zip(
                     src_meta.episodes[f"videos/{key}/chunk_index"],
@@ -414,7 +447,7 @@ def aggregate_videos(
                     strict=False,
                 )
             }
-        unique_chunk_file_pairs = sorted(unique_chunk_file_pairs)
+        )
 
         chunk_idx = video_idx["chunk"]
         file_idx = video_idx["file"]
@@ -489,7 +522,14 @@ def aggregate_videos(
     return videos_idx
 
 
-def aggregate_data(src_meta, dst_meta, data_idx, data_files_size_in_mb, chunk_size, concatenate_data=True):
+def aggregate_data(
+    src_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    dst_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    data_idx: IndexState,
+    data_files_size_in_mb: float,
+    chunk_size: int,
+    concatenate_data: bool = True,
+) -> IndexState:
     """Aggregates data chunks from a source dataset into the destination dataset.
 
     Reads source data files, updates indices to match the aggregated dataset,
@@ -510,14 +550,16 @@ def aggregate_data(src_meta, dst_meta, data_idx, data_files_size_in_mb, chunk_si
     Returns:
         dict: Updated data_idx with current chunk and file indices.
     """
-    unique_chunk_file_ids = {
+    unique_chunk_file_ids: list[ChunkFile] = sorted(
+        {
             (c, f)
             for c, f in zip(
-            src_meta.episodes["data/chunk_index"], src_meta.episodes["data/file_index"], strict=False
+                src_meta.episodes["data/chunk_index"],
+                src_meta.episodes["data/file_index"],
+                strict=False,
             )
         }
-
-    unique_chunk_file_ids = sorted(unique_chunk_file_ids)
+    )
     contains_images = len(dst_meta.image_keys) > 0
 
     # retrieve features schema for proper image typing in parquet
@@ -525,7 +567,7 @@ def aggregate_data(src_meta, dst_meta, data_idx, data_files_size_in_mb, chunk_si
 
     # Track source to destination file mapping for metadata update
     # This is critical for handling datasets that are already results of a merge
-    src_to_dst: dict[tuple[int, int], tuple[int, int]] = {}
+    src_to_dst: dict[ChunkFile, ChunkFile] = {}
 
     for src_chunk_idx, src_file_idx in unique_chunk_file_ids:
         src_path = src_meta.root / DEFAULT_DATA_PATH.format(
@@ -564,7 +606,13 @@ def aggregate_data(src_meta, dst_meta, data_idx, data_files_size_in_mb, chunk_si
     return data_idx
 
 
-def aggregate_metadata(src_meta, dst_meta, meta_idx, data_idx, videos_idx):
+def aggregate_metadata(
+    src_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    dst_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata,
+    meta_idx: IndexState,
+    data_idx: IndexState,
+    videos_idx: VideoIndexState,
+) -> IndexState:
     """Aggregates metadata from a source dataset into the destination dataset.
 
     Reads source metadata files, updates all indices and timestamps,
@@ -580,7 +628,8 @@ def aggregate_metadata(src_meta, dst_meta, meta_idx, data_idx, videos_idx):
     Returns:
         dict: Updated meta_idx with current chunk and file indices.
     """
-    chunk_file_ids = {
+    chunk_file_ids: list[ChunkFile] = sorted(
+        {
             (c, f)
             for c, f in zip(
                 src_meta.episodes["meta/episodes/chunk_index"],
@@ -588,8 +637,7 @@ def aggregate_metadata(src_meta, dst_meta, meta_idx, data_idx, videos_idx):
                 strict=False,
             )
         }
-
-    chunk_file_ids = sorted(chunk_file_ids)
+    )
     for chunk_idx, file_idx in chunk_file_ids:
         src_path = src_meta.root / DEFAULT_EPISODES_PATH.format(chunk_index=chunk_idx, file_index=file_idx)
         df = pd.read_parquet(src_path)
@@ -622,16 +670,16 @@ def aggregate_metadata(src_meta, dst_meta, meta_idx, data_idx, videos_idx):
 def append_or_create_parquet_file(
     df: pd.DataFrame,
     src_path: Path,
-    idx: dict[str, int],
+    idx: IndexState,
     max_mb: float,
     chunk_size: int,
     default_path: str,
     contains_images: bool = False,
-    aggr_root: Path = None,
+    aggr_root: Path | None = None,
     hf_features: datasets.Features | None = None,
     concatenate: bool = True,
     one_row_group_per_episode: bool = False,
-) -> tuple[dict[str, int], tuple[int, int]]:
+) -> tuple[IndexState, ChunkFile]:
     """Appends data to an existing parquet file or creates a new one based on size constraints.
 
     Manages file rotation when size limits are exceeded to prevent individual files
@@ -654,7 +702,13 @@ def append_or_create_parquet_file(
     Returns:
         tuple: (updated_idx, (dst_chunk, dst_file)) where updated_idx is the index dict
                and (dst_chunk, dst_file) is the actual destination file the data was written to.
+
+    Raises:
+        ValueError: If aggr_root is not provided.
     """
+    if aggr_root is None:
+        raise ValueError("aggr_root must be provided.")
+
     dst_chunk, dst_file = idx["chunk"], idx["file"]
     dst_path = aggr_root / default_path.format(chunk_index=dst_chunk, file_index=dst_file)
 
@@ -698,7 +752,9 @@ def append_or_create_parquet_file(
     return idx, (dst_chunk, dst_file)
 
 
-def finalize_aggregation(aggr_meta, all_metadata):
+def finalize_aggregation(
+    aggr_meta: LeRobotDatasetMetadata, all_metadata: list[LeRobotDatasetMetadata]
+) -> None:
     """Finalizes the dataset aggregation by writing summary files and statistics.
 
     Writes the tasks file, info file with total counts and splits, and
@@ -708,16 +764,16 @@ def finalize_aggregation(aggr_meta, all_metadata):
         aggr_meta: Aggregated dataset metadata.
         all_metadata: List of all source dataset metadata objects.
     """
-    logging.info("write tasks")
+    logger.info("write tasks")
     write_tasks(aggr_meta.tasks, aggr_meta.root)
 
-    logging.info("write info")
+    logger.info("write info")
     aggr_meta.info.total_tasks = len(aggr_meta.tasks)
     aggr_meta.info.total_episodes = sum(m.total_episodes for m in all_metadata)
     aggr_meta.info.total_frames = sum(m.total_frames for m in all_metadata)
     aggr_meta.info.splits = {"train": f"0:{sum(m.total_episodes for m in all_metadata)}"}
     write_info(aggr_meta.info, aggr_meta.root)
 
-    logging.info("write stats")
+    logger.info("write stats")
     aggr_meta.stats = aggregate_stats([m.stats for m in all_metadata])
     write_stats(aggr_meta.stats, aggr_meta.root)

src/lerobot/policies/evo1/processor_evo1.py

@@ -302,6 +302,33 @@ def _pad_evo1_stats(
     return padded_stats
 
 
+def _refresh_evo1_normalization_steps(
+    config: Evo1Config,
+    preprocessor: PolicyProcessorPipeline,
+    postprocessor: PolicyProcessorPipeline,
+) -> None:
+    """Re-pad checkpoint-loaded (un)normalizer stats/features to EVO1's fixed widths.
+
+    Loading a checkpoint injects the raw dataset stats (unpadded to max_state_dim/max_action_dim)
+    into the (un)normalizer via the generic override path in make_pre_post_processors. Those stats
+    and their declared features must be re-padded/reshaped to EVO1's fixed widths, otherwise
+    normalization fails against the padded state/action tensors (e.g. state padded to 24 vs. 8-dim
+    LIBERO stats). Padding is a no-op when stats are already at the target width.
+    """
+    normalization_features = _evo1_normalization_features(config)
+    action_features = _evo1_action_features(config)
+    for step in preprocessor.steps:
+        if isinstance(step, NormalizerProcessorStep):
+            step.features = normalization_features
+            step.stats = _pad_evo1_stats(config, step.stats)
+            step.to(device=step.device, dtype=step.dtype)
+    for step in postprocessor.steps:
+        if isinstance(step, UnnormalizerProcessorStep):
+            step.features = action_features
+            step.stats = _pad_evo1_stats(config, step.stats)
+            step.to(device=step.device, dtype=step.dtype)
+
+
 def reconcile_evo1_processors(
     config: Evo1Config,
     preprocessor: PolicyProcessorPipeline,
@@ -309,16 +336,19 @@ def reconcile_evo1_processors(
 ) -> tuple[PolicyProcessorPipeline, PolicyProcessorPipeline]:
     """Reconcile checkpoint-loaded pipelines with the current EVO1 config.
 
-    Two things cannot be restored from a serialized pipeline alone: the EVO1 batch converter
-    (converters are plain functions and are never serialized), and eval-time CLI overrides of the
-    action postprocessing flags (`postprocess_action_dim`, `binarize_gripper`, `gripper_*`). This
-    restores the converter and rebuilds the action step from the current config so those overrides
-    take effect.
+    Three things cannot be restored from a serialized pipeline alone: the EVO1 batch converter
+    (converters are plain functions and are never serialized), eval-time CLI overrides of the
+    action postprocessing flags (`postprocess_action_dim`, `binarize_gripper`, `gripper_*`), and the
+    (un)normalizer stats/features when the generic override path injects raw, unpadded dataset
+    stats. This restores the converter, re-pads the normalization stats to EVO1's fixed widths, and
+    rebuilds the action step from the current config so those overrides take effect.
     """
     # Pipelines reloaded from a checkpoint come back with the default batch converter, which drops
     # non-observation extras (embodiment_id, state_mask, custom task fields) needed by EVO1.
     preprocessor.to_transition = evo1_batch_to_transition
 
+    _refresh_evo1_normalization_steps(config, preprocessor, postprocessor)
+
     action_step = Evo1ActionProcessorStep(
         action_dim=_evo1_action_dim(config),
         binarize_gripper=config.binarize_gripper,

src/lerobot/robots/so_follower/config_so_follower.py

@@ -46,6 +46,12 @@ class SOFollowerConfig:
     position_i_coefficient: int = 0
     position_d_coefficient: int = 32
 
+    # Number of extra attempts when a `sync_read` of the motors fails. Feetech buses can occasionally
+    # return a corrupted status packet ("Incorrect status packet!"), especially when several joints move
+    # at once, which otherwise aborts the control loop. Retries are immediate (no sleep) and only happen on
+    # failure, so the steady-state read cost is unchanged.
+    num_read_retries: int = 2
+
 
 @RobotConfig.register_subclass("so101_follower")
 @RobotConfig.register_subclass("so100_follower")

src/lerobot/robots/so_follower/so_follower.py

@@ -142,11 +142,25 @@ class SOFollower(Robot):
         range_mins[full_turn_motor] = 0
         range_maxes[full_turn_motor] = 4095
 
+        drive_modes = dict.fromkeys(self.bus.motors, 0)
+        input(f"Fully close the gripper of {self} and press ENTER....")
+        gripper_closed_pos = self.bus.read(
+            "Present_Position", "gripper", normalize=False, num_retry=self.config.num_read_retries
+        )
+        distance_to_min = abs(gripper_closed_pos - range_mins["gripper"])
+        distance_to_max = abs(gripper_closed_pos - range_maxes["gripper"])
+        if min(distance_to_min, distance_to_max) > (range_maxes["gripper"] - range_mins["gripper"]) * 0.2:
+            raise ValueError("Gripper is not fully closed. Run calibration again.")
+
+        drive_modes["gripper"] = int(distance_to_max < distance_to_min)
+        if drive_modes["gripper"]:
+            logger.info("Gripper motor is inverted, setting drive_mode=1 to compensate.")
+
         self.calibration = {}
         for motor, m in self.bus.motors.items():
             self.calibration[motor] = MotorCalibration(
                 id=m.id,
-                drive_mode=0,
+                drive_mode=drive_modes[motor],
                 homing_offset=homing_offsets[motor],
                 range_min=range_mins[motor],
                 range_max=range_maxes[motor],
@@ -180,7 +194,7 @@ class SOFollower(Robot):
     def get_observation(self) -> RobotObservation:
         # Read arm position
         start = time.perf_counter()
-        obs_dict = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position")
+        obs_dict = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position", num_retry=self.config.num_read_retries)
         obs_dict = {f"{motor}.pos": val for motor, val in obs_dict.items()}
         dt_ms = (time.perf_counter() - start) * 1e3
         logger.debug(f"{self} read state: {dt_ms:.1f}ms")
@@ -221,7 +235,7 @@ class SOFollower(Robot):
         # Cap goal position when too far away from present position.
         # /!\ Slower fps expected due to reading from the follower.
         if self.config.max_relative_target is not None:
-            present_pos = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position")
+            present_pos = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position", num_retry=self.config.num_read_retries)
             goal_present_pos = {key: (g_pos, present_pos[key]) for key, g_pos in goal_pos.items()}
             goal_pos = ensure_safe_goal_position(goal_present_pos, self.config.max_relative_target)
 

src/lerobot/scripts/augment_dataset_quantile_stats.py

@@ -36,6 +36,7 @@ python src/lerobot/scripts/augment_dataset_quantile_stats.py \
 import argparse
 import concurrent.futures
 import logging
+import os
 from pathlib import Path
 
 import numpy as np
@@ -52,6 +53,7 @@ from lerobot.datasets import (
     get_feature_stats,
     write_stats,
 )
+from lerobot.datasets.compute_stats import sample_indices
 from lerobot.utils.utils import init_logging
 
 
@@ -77,12 +79,14 @@ def has_quantile_stats(stats: dict[str, dict] | None, quantile_list_keys: list[s
     return False
 
 
-def process_single_episode(dataset: LeRobotDataset, episode_idx: int) -> dict:
+def process_single_episode(dataset: LeRobotDataset, episode_idx: int, use_sampling: bool = True) -> dict:
     """Process a single episode and return its statistics.
 
     Args:
         dataset: The LeRobot dataset
         episode_idx: Index of the episode to process
+        use_sampling: If True, sub-sample image/video frames per episode to bound
+            memory. If False, use every frame (exact, higher memory).
 
     Returns:
         Dictionary containing episode statistics
@@ -92,16 +96,31 @@ def process_single_episode(dataset: LeRobotDataset, episode_idx: int) -> dict:
     start_idx = dataset.meta.episodes[episode_idx]["dataset_from_index"]
     end_idx = dataset.meta.episodes[episode_idx]["dataset_to_index"]
 
-    collected_data: dict[str, list] = {}
-    for idx in range(start_idx, end_idx):
-        item = dataset[idx]
-        for key, value in item.items():
-            if key not in dataset.features:
-                continue
+    episode_len = end_idx - start_idx
 
-            if key not in collected_data:
-                collected_data[key] = []
-            collected_data[key].append(value)
+    # Images/video are the memory hog, so sub-sample those frames per episode;
+    # numeric columns are cheap, so read them in full (exact).
+    image_keys = [k for k in dataset.features if dataset.features[k]["dtype"] in ("image", "video")]
+    numeric_keys = [
+        k for k in dataset.features if dataset.features[k]["dtype"] not in ("image", "video", "string")
+    ]
+
+    collected_data: dict[str, list] = {}
+
+    # Numeric features: every frame, read directly from the underlying table.
+    if numeric_keys:
+        numeric_cols = dataset.hf_dataset.select_columns(numeric_keys)[start_idx:end_idx]
+        for key in numeric_keys:
+            collected_data[key] = [torch.as_tensor(v) for v in numeric_cols[key]]
+
+    # Image/video features: decode only a sampled subset of frames.
+    if image_keys:
+        sampled_offsets = sample_indices(episode_len) if use_sampling else list(range(episode_len))
+        for offset in sampled_offsets:
+            item = dataset[start_idx + offset]
+            for key in image_keys:
+                if key in item:
+                    collected_data.setdefault(key, []).append(item[key])
 
     ep_stats = {}
     for key, data_list in collected_data.items():
@@ -131,11 +150,13 @@ def process_single_episode(dataset: LeRobotDataset, episode_idx: int) -> dict:
     return ep_stats
 
 
-def compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset: LeRobotDataset) -> dict[str, dict]:
+def compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset: LeRobotDataset, use_sampling: bool = True) -> dict[str, dict]:
     """Compute quantile statistics for all episodes in the dataset.
 
     Args:
         dataset: The LeRobot dataset to compute statistics for
+        use_sampling: If True, sub-sample image/video frames per episode to bound
+            memory. If False, use every frame (exact, higher memory).
 
     Returns:
         Dictionary containing aggregated statistics with quantiles
@@ -153,15 +174,15 @@ def compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset: LeRobotDataset) -> dict[str, dic
     if has_videos:
         logging.info("Dataset contains video keys - using sequential processing for thread safety")
         for episode_idx in tqdm(range(dataset.num_episodes), desc="Processing episodes"):
-            ep_stats = process_single_episode(dataset, episode_idx)
+            ep_stats = process_single_episode(dataset, episode_idx, use_sampling)
             episode_stats_list.append(ep_stats)
     else:
         logging.info("Dataset has no video keys - using parallel processing for better performance")
-        max_workers = min(dataset.num_episodes, 16)
+        max_workers = min(dataset.num_episodes, int(os.environ.get("LEROBOT_STATS_MAX_WORKERS", 16)))
 
         with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=max_workers) as executor:
             future_to_episode = {
-                executor.submit(process_single_episode, dataset, episode_idx): episode_idx
+                executor.submit(process_single_episode, dataset, episode_idx, use_sampling): episode_idx
                 for episode_idx in range(dataset.num_episodes)
             }
 
@@ -188,6 +209,7 @@ def augment_dataset_with_quantile_stats(
     repo_id: str,
     root: str | Path | None = None,
     overwrite: bool = False,
+    use_sampling: bool = True,
 ) -> None:
     """Augment a dataset with quantile statistics if they are missing.
 
@@ -195,6 +217,8 @@ def augment_dataset_with_quantile_stats(
         repo_id: Repository ID of the dataset
         root: Local root directory for the dataset
         overwrite: Overwrite existing quantile statistics if they already exist
+        use_sampling: If True, sub-sample image/video frames per episode to bound
+            memory. If False, use every frame (exact, higher memory).
     """
     logging.info(f"Loading dataset: {repo_id}")
     dataset = LeRobotDataset(
@@ -208,7 +232,7 @@ def augment_dataset_with_quantile_stats(
 
     logging.info("Dataset does not contain quantile statistics. Computing them now...")
 
-    new_stats = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset)
+    new_stats = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=use_sampling)
 
     logging.info("Updating dataset metadata with new quantile statistics")
     dataset.meta.stats = new_stats
@@ -248,6 +272,14 @@ def main():
         action="store_true",
         help="Overwrite existing quantile statistics if they already exist",
     )
+    parser.add_argument(
+        "--no-sampling",
+        action="store_true",
+        help=(
+            "Compute stats over every frame (exact, higher memory). By default, "
+            "image/video frames are sub-sampled per episode to bound memory."
+        ),
+    )
 
     args = parser.parse_args()
     root = Path(args.root) if args.root else None
@@ -258,6 +290,7 @@ def main():
         repo_id=args.repo_id,
         root=root,
         overwrite=args.overwrite,
+        use_sampling=not args.no_sampling,
     )
 
 

src/lerobot/teleoperators/so_leader/config_so_leader.py

@@ -29,6 +29,12 @@ class SOLeaderConfig:
     # Whether to use degrees for angles
     use_degrees: bool = True
 
+    # Number of extra attempts when a `sync_read` of the motors fails. Feetech buses can occasionally
+    # return a corrupted status packet ("Incorrect status packet!"), especially when several joints move
+    # at once, which otherwise aborts the teleoperation loop. Retries are immediate (no sleep) and only
+    # happen on failure, so the steady-state read cost is unchanged.
+    num_read_retries: int = 2
+
 
 @TeleoperatorConfig.register_subclass("so101_leader")
 @TeleoperatorConfig.register_subclass("so100_leader")

src/lerobot/teleoperators/so_leader/so_leader.py

@@ -110,11 +110,25 @@ class SOLeader(Teleoperator):
         range_mins[full_turn_motor] = 0
         range_maxes[full_turn_motor] = 4095
 
+        drive_modes = dict.fromkeys(self.bus.motors, 0)
+        input(f"Fully close the gripper of {self} and press ENTER....")
+        gripper_closed_pos = self.bus.read(
+            "Present_Position", "gripper", normalize=False, num_retry=self.config.num_read_retries
+        )
+        distance_to_min = abs(gripper_closed_pos - range_mins["gripper"])
+        distance_to_max = abs(gripper_closed_pos - range_maxes["gripper"])
+        if min(distance_to_min, distance_to_max) > (range_maxes["gripper"] - range_mins["gripper"]) * 0.2:
+            raise ValueError("Gripper is not fully closed. Run calibration again.")
+
+        drive_modes["gripper"] = int(distance_to_max < distance_to_min)
+        if drive_modes["gripper"]:
+            logger.info("Gripper motor is inverted, setting drive_mode=1 to compensate.")
+
         self.calibration = {}
         for motor, m in self.bus.motors.items():
             self.calibration[motor] = MotorCalibration(
                 id=m.id,
-                drive_mode=0,
+                drive_mode=drive_modes[motor],
                 homing_offset=homing_offsets[motor],
                 range_min=range_mins[motor],
                 range_max=range_maxes[motor],
@@ -145,7 +159,7 @@ class SOLeader(Teleoperator):
     @check_if_not_connected
     def get_action(self) -> dict[str, float]:
         start = time.perf_counter()
-        action = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position")
+        action = self.bus.sync_read("Present_Position", num_retry=self.config.num_read_retries)
         action = {f"{motor}.pos": val for motor, val in action.items()}
         dt_ms = (time.perf_counter() - start) * 1e3
         logger.debug(f"{self} read action: {dt_ms:.1f}ms")

tests/datasets/test_augment_quantile_stats.py

@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+# Copyright 2025 The HuggingFace Inc. team. All rights reserved.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+import numpy as np
+import pytest
+
+pytest.importorskip("datasets", reason="datasets is required (install lerobot[dataset])")
+
+from lerobot.scripts.augment_dataset_quantile_stats import (
+    compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset,
+    has_quantile_stats,
+)
+
+
+def _numeric_keys(dataset):
+    return [k for k, v in dataset.features.items() if v["dtype"] not in ("image", "video", "string")]
+
+
+def _image_keys(dataset):
+    return [k for k, v in dataset.features.items() if v["dtype"] in ("image", "video")]
+
+
+def test_numeric_stats_are_unaffected_by_sampling(tmp_path, lerobot_dataset_factory):
+    """Sampling only touches image/video frames; numeric features are read in
+    full either way, so their stats must be identical with and without sampling."""
+    dataset = lerobot_dataset_factory(
+        root=tmp_path / "ds", total_episodes=2, total_frames=400, use_videos=False
+    )
+
+    exact = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=False)
+    sampled = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=True)
+
+    numeric_keys = _numeric_keys(dataset)
+    assert numeric_keys, "fixture should expose numeric features"
+    for key in numeric_keys:
+        if key not in exact:
+            continue
+        for stat in ("mean", "std", "q01", "q50", "q99"):
+            if stat in exact[key]:
+                np.testing.assert_allclose(
+                    sampled[key][stat],
+                    exact[key][stat],
+                    rtol=1e-6,
+                    atol=1e-6,
+                    err_msg=f"numeric feature '{key}' stat '{stat}' changed under sampling",
+                )
+
+
+def test_image_sampling_reduces_data_but_keeps_stats_close(tmp_path, lerobot_dataset_factory):
+    """For images, sampling should reduce the number of samples considered while
+    keeping the resulting statistics close to the exact ones."""
+    dataset = lerobot_dataset_factory(
+        root=tmp_path / "ds", total_episodes=2, total_frames=400, use_videos=False
+    )
+
+    exact = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=False)
+    sampled = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=True)
+
+    image_keys = _image_keys(dataset)
+    assert image_keys, "fixture should expose at least one image feature"
+    for key in image_keys:
+        # sampling actually looked at fewer pixels
+        assert sampled[key]["count"][0] < exact[key]["count"][0]
+        # but per-channel mean stays close
+        np.testing.assert_allclose(
+            sampled[key]["mean"],
+            exact[key]["mean"],
+            rtol=0.15,
+            err_msg=f"image feature '{key}' mean drifted too far under sampling",
+        )
+
+
+def test_short_episodes_use_all_frames(tmp_path, lerobot_dataset_factory):
+    """With episodes shorter than the sampling floor, sampling is a no-op and
+    must produce exactly the same stats as the exact path."""
+    dataset = lerobot_dataset_factory(
+        root=tmp_path / "ds", total_episodes=2, total_frames=40, use_videos=False
+    )
+
+    exact = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=False)
+    sampled = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=True)
+
+    for key in _image_keys(dataset):
+        assert sampled[key]["count"][0] == exact[key]["count"][0]
+
+
+def test_quantile_stats_present_after_compute(tmp_path, lerobot_dataset_factory):
+    """The computed stats should contain quantile keys for the dataset."""
+    dataset = lerobot_dataset_factory(
+        root=tmp_path / "ds", total_episodes=2, total_frames=200, use_videos=False
+    )
+    stats = compute_quantile_stats_for_dataset(dataset, use_sampling=True)
+    assert has_quantile_stats(stats)

tests/motors/test_feetech.py

@@ -294,6 +294,19 @@ def test__sync_read(addr, length, ids_values, mock_motors, dummy_motors):
     assert read_values == ids_values
 
 
+def test__sync_read_retries_after_transient_failure(mock_motors, dummy_motors):
+    addr, length, ids_values = (10, 4, {1: 1337})
+    stub = mock_motors.build_sync_read_stub(addr, length, ids_values, num_invalid_try=1)
+    bus = FeetechMotorsBus(port=mock_motors.port, motors=dummy_motors)
+    bus.connect(handshake=False)
+
+    read_values, read_comm = bus._sync_read(addr, length, list(ids_values), num_retry=1)
+
+    assert read_comm == scs.COMM_SUCCESS
+    assert read_values == ids_values
+    assert mock_motors.stubs[stub].calls == 2
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("raise_on_error", (True, False))
 def test__sync_read_comm(raise_on_error, mock_motors, dummy_motors):
     addr, length, ids_values = (10, 4, {1: 1337})

tests/policies/evo1/test_evo1.py

@@ -496,6 +496,60 @@ def test_evo1_processor_save_load_round_trip_applies_config_overrides(tmp_path):
     assert "embodiment_id" in processed
 
 
+def test_reconcile_evo1_processors_repads_overridden_stats(tmp_path):
+    """Loading a checkpoint and injecting raw (unpadded) dataset stats must be re-padded.
+
+    Regression test: lerobot-train passes the raw dataset stats as normalizer/unnormalizer
+    overrides when resuming from a checkpoint (e.g. stage2 from a stage1 checkpoint). Those stats
+    are at the dataset dims (e.g. LIBERO state=8/action=7), but EVO1 pads state/action to
+    max_state_dim/max_action_dim before normalization, so reconcile_evo1_processors must re-pad the
+    stats or normalization crashes with a shape mismatch.
+    """
+    config = make_config()
+    preprocessor, postprocessor = make_evo1_pre_post_processors(config, dataset_stats=make_stats())
+    preprocessor.save_pretrained(tmp_path)
+    postprocessor.save_pretrained(tmp_path)
+
+    # Reload with the generic override path injecting raw, unpadded dataset stats.
+    raw_stats = make_stats()
+    loaded_pre = PolicyProcessorPipeline.from_pretrained(
+        tmp_path,
+        config_filename=f"{POLICY_PREPROCESSOR_DEFAULT_NAME}.json",
+        overrides={"normalizer_processor": {"stats": raw_stats}},
+        to_transition=batch_to_transition,
+        to_output=transition_to_batch,
+    )
+    loaded_post = PolicyProcessorPipeline.from_pretrained(
+        tmp_path,
+        config_filename=f"{POLICY_POSTPROCESSOR_DEFAULT_NAME}.json",
+        overrides={"unnormalizer_processor": {"stats": raw_stats}},
+        to_transition=policy_action_to_transition,
+        to_output=transition_to_policy_action,
+    )
+
+    # Sanity: the override really injected unpadded stats before reconciliation.
+    normalizer = next(step for step in loaded_pre.steps if isinstance(step, NormalizerProcessorStep))
+    assert normalizer._tensor_stats[OBS_STATE]["min"].shape == (STATE_DIM,)
+
+    loaded_pre, loaded_post = reconcile_evo1_processors(config, loaded_pre, loaded_post)
+
+    normalizer = next(step for step in loaded_pre.steps if isinstance(step, NormalizerProcessorStep))
+    unnormalizer = next(step for step in loaded_post.steps if isinstance(step, UnnormalizerProcessorStep))
+    assert normalizer._tensor_stats[OBS_STATE]["min"].shape == (MAX_STATE_DIM,)
+    assert normalizer._tensor_stats[ACTION]["min"].shape == (MAX_ACTION_DIM,)
+    assert unnormalizer._tensor_stats[ACTION]["min"].shape == (MAX_ACTION_DIM,)
+
+    # Normalizing a padded state must not raise (this is the exact runtime path that crashed).
+    processed = loaded_pre(
+        {
+            "task": "pick the block",
+            OBS_STATE: torch.zeros(STATE_DIM),
+            f"{OBS_IMAGES}.front": torch.rand(3, 16, 16),
+        }
+    )
+    assert processed[OBS_STATE].shape == (1, MAX_STATE_DIM)
+
+
 def test_evo1_policy_forward_and_inference_use_batched_embedding(monkeypatch):
     monkeypatch.setattr(modeling_evo1, "Evo1Model", DummyEvo1Model)
     policy = modeling_evo1.Evo1Policy(make_config())

tests/robots/test_so100_follower.py

@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ def _make_bus_mock() -> MagicMock:
 
 
 @pytest.fixture
-def follower():
+def follower(tmp_path):
     bus_mock = _make_bus_mock()
 
     def _bus_side_effect(*_args, **kwargs):
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ def follower():
         ),
         patch.object(SO100Follower, "configure", lambda self: None),
     ):
-        cfg = SO100FollowerConfig(port="/dev/null")
+        cfg = SO100FollowerConfig(port="/dev/null", calibration_dir=tmp_path)
         robot = SO100Follower(cfg)
         yield robot
         if robot.is_connected:
@@ -99,6 +99,27 @@ def test_get_observation(follower):
         assert obs[f"{motor}.pos"] == idx
 
 
+def test_get_observation_uses_read_retries(follower):
+    # Feetech buses can intermittently fail a sync_read; the follower should forward the configured
+    # retry count so transient failures don't abort the control loop (see #3131).
+    follower.config.num_read_retries = 7
+    follower.connect()
+    follower.get_observation()
+
+    follower.bus.sync_read.assert_called_once_with("Present_Position", num_retry=7)
+
+
+def test_send_action_uses_read_retries(follower):
+    follower.config.max_relative_target = 10.0
+    follower.config.num_read_retries = 7
+    follower.connect()
+
+    action = {f"{motor}.pos": value * 10 for value, motor in enumerate(follower.bus.motors, 1)}
+    follower.send_action(action)
+
+    follower.bus.sync_read.assert_called_once_with("Present_Position", num_retry=7)
+
+
 def test_send_action(follower):
     follower.connect()
 
@@ -128,3 +149,51 @@ def test_configure_writes_position_pid_coefficients():
     bus_mock.write.assert_any_call("P_Coefficient", "shoulder_pan", 32)
     bus_mock.write.assert_any_call("I_Coefficient", "shoulder_pan", 1)
     bus_mock.write.assert_any_call("D_Coefficient", "shoulder_pan", 16)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    "gripper_closed_pos, expected_drive_mode",
+    [
+        (2035, 0),  # closed position at range_min -> raw increases when opening -> not inverted
+        (3528, 1),  # closed position at range_max -> raw increases when closing -> inverted
+        (2781, None),  # not near either end stop -> unsafe to infer
+    ],
+)
+def test_calibrate_detects_gripper_drive_mode(follower, gripper_closed_pos, expected_drive_mode):
+    """Regression test for #3942: the follower gripper can be mounted mirrored with respect to the
+    leader's, in which case its raw position increases when closing. Calibration must detect this
+    and set drive_mode=1 so that normalized values follow the 0=closed/100=open convention."""
+    follower.connect()
+
+    motors = list(follower.bus.motors)
+    follower.bus.set_half_turn_homings.return_value = dict.fromkeys(motors, 0)
+    follower.bus.record_ranges_of_motion.return_value = (
+        dict.fromkeys(motors, 2035),
+        dict.fromkeys(motors, 3528),
+    )
+    follower.bus.read.return_value = gripper_closed_pos
+
+    with (
+        patch("builtins.input", return_value=""),
+        patch.object(type(follower), "_save_calibration", lambda self: None),
+    ):
+        follower.calibration = {}
+        if expected_drive_mode is None:
+            with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Gripper is not fully closed"):
+                follower.calibrate()
+        else:
+            follower.calibrate()
+
+    follower.bus.read.assert_called_with(
+        "Present_Position",
+        "gripper",
+        normalize=False,
+        num_retry=follower.config.num_read_retries,
+    )
+    if expected_drive_mode is None:
+        return
+
+    assert follower.calibration["gripper"].drive_mode == expected_drive_mode
+    for motor in motors:
+        if motor != "gripper":
+            assert follower.calibration[motor].drive_mode == 0